Learning activities/Journalism

Journalism Tutorials—Jack Driscoll

RESEARCH

BASIC TOOLS—A pen or pencil and paper. Good enough? Veteran reporters prefer pens and usually carry two, in case the first one runs out of ink. If you use a pencil, carry at least two. Lead breaks easily. Spiral notebooks that fit in your hand or are a little larger and can fit in your pocket or in a purse are practical. Another technique is to fold a piece or paper (or two pieces) into a size small enough to fit into your hand for ease of taking notes. Be sure to number each page.

Research is an important part of reporting.

Research is an important part of reporting. For most stories it is the first step. Before going out to report on an event or do an interview, do as much preparation as possible. Research is a form of searching. Ask yourself the question: “What am I looking for?” You would never go on a search without knowing why you are wandering through the woods. You do so, because your dog is lost or you want to gather wild flowers. The same is true of research: Be as clear in your mind as you can about what you are trying to find. Write it down. Otherwise you will waste a lot of time wandering.

Decide where you wish to look.

Decide where you wish to look. Think of yourself as an explorer. The more sources of reliable information you can find the better: a library, which has books, newspapers, magazines and other materials; websites on the internet; certain government offices where records are kept; people who are experts on the topic What motivates an explorer is the prospect of discovery. It’s an exciting feeling to dig up information that clicks. Often you will hit dead ends before you reach that moment of discovery, but bear in mind that exhaustive research, which you should strive for, can be exhausting.

Notes save you the trouble of memorizing.

It is pretty impossible to do research without taking notes that you write on paper or type into your computer. Notes save you the trouble of memorizing. They save you from looking up a piece of information a second time at a later date. They also help you absorb the information in your mind. It is better to have too many notes than too few. One technique is take careful handwritten notes, then type them when time permits. You might wish to organize notes by subject matter. Retyping gives you a better grasp of the material you have gathered. Well-organized research notes translate into easier writing in the end.

Make note when you are taking notes.

Make note when you are taking notes. Note the name of the book; jot down the name of the publisher and author or authors, the year of publication, what page your notes are taken from. If necessary, make note of any footnotes as well.

If your source is a magazine or newspaper, note the official name (is it The London Times or the Times of London; is it New York Times or The New York Times); note the author, the date of publication, the page number(s).

Be especially careful when researching website material, because the information frequently comes from another source. Clicking on links sometimes leads to the original material. Some web stories list references at the bottom of their stories.

Where do I begin?

Let’s say you pick up a textbook with a title something like, “The History of the World”. It has more than 1000 pages. It would make a good doorstop. You stare at it and finally say to yourself, “Where do I begin?”

Rather than start at Page 1 and read the entire book, what you want to do is look for clues. The best clues are in the front and in the back of the book. Something called The Table of Contents usually is found in the front and contains chapter titles. In the back is the Index, an alphabetical listing of names and words with page references. In some books the Index is thorough; other books only list important names and words. In either case the Index can send you right to the pages you most need to look at.

Photographs often provide valuable clues, too. Sometimes there is a listing of photos in the front of the book with page numbers. Sometimes books are printed with the photos all clustered together on successive pages. At worst, you might have to flip through the pages to find pictures connected to your research. Occasionally the photographs will lead you to significant information because of what they depict or what is mentioned in the caption or because of some information you get visually from the photo.

How best to use search engines?

Internet search engines are like double-edged swords. They are easy to use but contain the most inaccurate information. It’s best to have at least two sources for information that is taken from the internet, making sure one isn’t copying from the other.

Take the time to study how best to use these search engines. Sometimes the best results come when you use the fewest words in your search query. An owner of one of the biggest sites has said that three search words get the best results from his search engine.

Use quotation marks around words or phrases that are exactly what you are looking for, such as a name or a phrase. “Old King Cole” without quotes may retrieve more references to Nat King Cole, a popular 20th Century singer, than to the merry old soul.

Let’s say you are a little hesitant about a phrase. Was it “one if by land, two if by sea” or “one if by sea, two if by land?” Try both. You may find that neither is correct. The correct phrase is: “One, if by land, and two, if by sea”. Or maybe you know the exact phrase, but you are unsure whether the title is “The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere” or “Paul Revere’s Ride.” Searching the phrase will quickly tell you the title is the latter.

Take the time to familiarize yourself with the tricks of the search-engine trade. Most have similar rules, but some have tricks or shortcuts that speed your research.

Human beings sometimes are fountains of information.

Research doesn’t always have to entail pouring through drawers of file-cabinet folders with moths flying out or slogging through a half dozen thick encyclopedias.

Human beings sometimes are fountains of information that may never find its way into a library: The 85-year-old who could tell what the Great Depression was like in about 20 states, because he was a hobo; the Irish wood carver whose intricate designs were passed down from his County Meath ancestors; the nurse who worked with Mother Theresa in India; the botanist, the butcher, the baker. Humans enjoy talking about what they are good at or about subjects they have expertise with.

If you have access to a tape recorder, ask the person you are interviewing for permission to record what is said. But you should still take notes as best you can for two reasons: (1) it will help you find important quotes on the tape when you are organizing in preparation for writing; (2) the tape recorder might fail to work!

When in doubt, check it out.

We have established that a researcher is a good advance planner, an explorer, a collector and a keeper of notes and an organizer. We also have suggested that good note taking avoids the need to look up a piece of information a second time.

However, bear in mind that second checking is often a plus and never a minus. The ultimate aim is accuracy. You may be able to remember what year the War of 1812 started, but do you know when the Peloponnesian War began and ended? If you are unsure, even if you looked it up once, double check it.

Editors frequently spout the following: When in doubt, check it out.

Never guess!

The need for accuracy cannot be overemphasized. So what causes inaccuracies? Generally the original mistake is made in the research phase and copied in the writing phase. If you jot down a wrong date in your notes, it’s likely to inaccurate when you write.

Care should be taken when it comes to bits of information: the spelling of a name or a person’s middle name, a date, a geographic location, a person’s exact title, etc. Be especially careful that you correctly spell the main subject of your research.

Usually a second reference can be used as a double-check on factoids: an encyclopedia, a dictionary, an atlas or book of maps, even a telephone book. When in doubt, check it out. I already said that, you say? Right. And I’ll say it again and again. You prefer a shorter version? OK: Never guess!

According to whom?

Certain information is common knowledge: The Earth is round, airplanes fly; horses have four legs. Other information is less obvious or may even be controversial (only a few hundred years ago many believed the Earth was flat). Be sure to make note of the source of your information when taking notes on less obvious or controversial facts.

Here’s a piece of information: Modern horses have only one functional toe.

It’s not common knowledge, certainly is not obvious and even could be controversial. So how do you handle it? You need attribution. You need to answer the question: According to whom? Be sure your notes reflect the name of the person or other source for any information you collect. Like the antique dealer who needs to be able to tell the customer who previously owned the flower vase, the researcher needs to tell the reader on whose authority a certain statement is made.

Not only does the name of the original source add to accuracy but it also helps the reader judge whether the information is believable.

Be as accurate as humanly possible.

As efficient as we may be, we often have to do research on our research.

When it comes time to write, we look at our notes and frequently question whether they are thorough enough or even whether they are totally accurate. After doing a lot of research on a subject, we sometimes find that little inconsistencies in our own early notes sometimes jump out at us.

It’s time to re-research. Even the best researchers at times end up going back to the library or to the web to double-check certain items. Never hesitate, because you want what you ultimately write to be as accurate as humanly possible.

Double-checking is not a sign of weakness; it is a sign of strength and wisdom.

Separate the wheat from the chaff.

You’ve finished your research, and you’ve got all this material piled high. Now what?

Assumedly you have organized your notes in the course of your research, putting apples in one pile, oranges in another and pears in another. Still, you’ll usually find you have too much information. This is a plus.

One way to determine what’s important is to start writing without looking at your notes. Write from memory. Do a fast draft. What’s most important will pop into your mind. Then go back to your research notes and get the exact date, the exact quote or whatever. As you are browsing, you may also stumble across some additional facts you had forgotten about.

Grain farmers refer to this process as “separating the wheat from the chaff.” For you that should mean identifying what information in your notes is important and what is fluff.

REPORTING

Swimming alone is not a good idea.

Two heads are better than one. Three are better still. Rather than plunge into the reporting, it’s a good idea to take a short time to plan your reporting strategy. Sitting down with one or more other persons and brainstorming is a valuable technique. What is the main point of the story you are reporting on? Where can you go to find out the most about it? Who are the best people to talk with? In what order? It like swimming in a river: You don’t want to just jump in without thinking. You want to find the best spot, where it’s not too shallow and not too deep; where boats are unlikely to be buzzing around; where the current is right; where others are nearby (swimming alone is not a good idea).

Even a few minutes spent sharing ideas with a parent, a brother or sister, another student, a teacher or a librarian will save wasting a lot of time in the end.

Take note of your surroundings.

Your story should deliver to the reader more than just the facts you collect. Words are symbols. You use them to convey to the reader what you’ve seen, felt, heard, smelled and, yes, maybe even tasted.

A television camera allows the audience to see and hear what the photojournalist chooses to shoot. Word pictures often can go beyond pictures, revealing what the camera might not be able to focus on; describing feelings (“the doorknob was so cold that the skin of your fingers stuck to it”) and aromas (“as you walked through the Italian section, the smell of pizza baking made your mouth water”).

You are a painter. You are creating a picture that illuminates and even awakens the senses of your readers who might chuckle or grimace or even shed a tear as they not only read but also experience what you are writing.

That’s why taking note of all the elements of your surroundings when reporting makes sense.

The smallest detail sometimes speaks volumes.

A court stenographer records everything that is said during a trial; a reporter takes notes on the important questions and answers but at the same time is aware of details that may or may not have anything to do with what is being said.

When you are interviewing someone, details also can be more revealing than the words that are spoken. Let’s say the health teacher tells you she is announcing a school campaign to promote better eating. On the same day you see the teacher leaving the cafeteria with a pile of French fries, a slice of cake, and an extra-large soda on her tray.

The above example is only in jest, just to help make the point, which is: No matter what type of story is being reported, the smallest detail sometimes speaks volumes to the reader.

Two is better than one; three is better still.

A veteran editor told his staff again and again: You must engage in over-reporting.

He knew the value of details. And he knew the value of corroborating information.

If one person tells you that the mayor likes to make phone calls for an hour early every morning, is that enough corroboration? Having two sources for that information is better; having three is best. Verifying this information through the mayor is ideal. The more important and sensitive the information is the more sources are needed. Over-reporting is the only way to be sure. (When you have more than one source, attribute your information to the most significant and credible source, such as the vice mayor rather than the city hall intern.)

Take notes on top of your notes.

Accuracy results from careful, meticulous reporting. Errors result from failure to keep good notes of what you see and hear. Errors can also result from bias. So always avoid inserting your own opinion into what you report.

Here’s a tip: Take notes on top of your notes.

What does that mean? Reporters often find a quiet corner after completing an interview or after covering an event. There they huddle with head down, feverishly writing in their notebook while their memory is still fresh.

They might find certain quotations in their notes that lack a word or two due to haste. Or they may wish to jot down certain observations that are still clear in their mind, such as the color of a dress, the number of people in a room, the make and model of an automobile that might be part of the story. From experience they know they may not remember some of these points when it’s time to write.

Few of us have a photographic memory. Time tends to make memory murky. Notes that build on notes can produce near-photographic results.

Credibility is key.

“To err is human.” If Alexander Pope hadn’t written that, we would all have a guilty conscience, because we all make mistakes. But we can’t use that as an excuse.

If your story contains inaccuracies, it becomes less believable. Credibility is key.

Most errors occur in spelling, use of names and titles, numbers or geographic locations.

Double-checking never hurts. No one likes to be misidentified in print, so never hesitate to ask, “Could you spell your name please?” Or, “Your title is chancellor of the exchequer, correct?”

Getting the basics correct is a good start. Then you can worry about the subtleties, such as whether the actress sits straight in a chair at the table and looks you straight in the eye or slouches in a big, pillowy sofa and stares out the window during your interview.

Chew it over, then digest it.

As you gather information, stop every so often and asks, “What do all these details mean?” It is not enough to pile up fact upon fact. When you eat, you place a portion of your food in your mouth, chew it over, then digest it. It is the same with reporting.

The process is known as providing perspective.

When you are taking photographs, you often take several close-ups, then adjust your lens to get a broader view. The same is true with writing.

Another way to gain perspective is to use comparisons. If you refer to the average number of students in a classroom at your school, how does it compare with the number of students per classroom in other schools in your community or nearby?

Making comparisons in order to gain perspective often is useful when referring to amounts of money. What does it mean to say the government is spending $3 million a year on a certain type of children’s program? If we can compare that figure with the amount of spending on similar programs as well as including the total annual government budget figure, it helps the reader digest the significance of all those numbers.

Face to face is best.

Asking a person questions face to face is recommended. Most people respond better in person. It also lets you get a better sense of the person. You can observe and note expressions and even hand gestures.

Email and telephone also have their place in reporting. They are especially useful if you have just a quick question or two, or if the person you wish to interview is too busy to meet with you. An advantage with email is that you can send as many questions as you wish whenever you wish. The problem is that you might not get the answers you asked for. They might be too short or are not quite a response to what you asked. You don’t have the opportunity for a follow-up question the way you do when you interview in person.

The advantage of using the telephone for reporting is that you can get a quick response (assuming the person is available to take the call). The disadvantage is that people generally don’t have time for a lot of phone questions. If you have more than a couple of questions, the best tactic is to call and ask for a time when you can call back. Give an estimated amount of time it will take. Here’s a tip: Never ask for more than 20 minutes. You risk getting turned down altogether.

Don’t believe everything you read.

Nicholas Gage was a well-known New York Times reporter. It is said that he got hooked on investigating/reporting while he was a Boston University student. A building on the college campus had earlier been a hotel, where the famous playwright Eugene O'Neill died. Gage read in a book that in the playwright’s dying moments he turned to his wife and asked her to burn his unfinished manuscripts in the hotel room fireplace.

Gage checked the room. No fireplace. So he checked the blueprints. No plan for a fireplace. So he called the widow, who told him she gave the manuscripts to a janitor who burned them in a basement furnace. Gage called the publisher and the book was changed.

Moral: Don’t believe everything you read. Indeed, don’t assume any fact is true. I checked two sources before writing this Nicholas Gage anecdote.

How do you know when you are done?

How do you know when you’ve finished your reporting?

Well, after you’ve collected enough information to support your story, you should take two more steps:

1. Test the old formula sometimes known as the "5 W’s and an H.” The letters stood for: Who? What? When? Where? Why? And How? If you can’t answer one of those questions, you undoubtedly need to do more reporting.

2. Put yourself in the place of the reader. What questions, large or small, would you want answered in the story? If you can answer those questions, then the fun is about to begin: It’s time to write.

INTERVIEWING

Here are a dozen do’s and don’ts:

1. Do as much research as you can before you start your interviews.

2. Decide whom you wish to interview and in what order. (Tip: The most important interviews should be done last).

3. Write out your questions ahead of time and in the order you think they should be asked and never start out with a big, important question. Ease the person into the interview in a conversational way.

4. Make an appointment to do the interview. After introducing yourself, explain briefly what story you are working on.

5. Ask all the questions you have written out but be alert. You’ll find that added questions often will pop into your mind as the interview unfolds.

6. Be sure to have enough paper and pencils or pens.

7. Use a tape recorder when appropriate and ask permission to use it. Don’t totally rely on the tape recorder. Be on the safe side. Take notes.

8. Be a good listener, but don’t let the person you are interviewing ramble. Try to draw out specifics: How much, how long, when, etc.

9. Make mental or written notes about the person (gestures, mannerisms) and the place (color, size, decorations, furniture, etc.).

10. Exchange contact information in case either of you wishes to contact the other at a later date with new, added or corrected information.

11. Don’t forget a photograph. If you are having someone else take a picture at a later time, make the arrangements at the end your interview.

12. While the interview is still fresh in your mind, go to a quiet place to review and reconstruct your notes.

WRITING

I don't know what you mean.

Writing involves having a conversation without sound.

You are conveying information to others using words that are written rather than spoken.Indeed, some good writers move their lips when they are writing. Others make believe they are writing for their favorite aunt or a good friend in an effort to remind themselves that they are writing for an audience rather than for themselves.

The advantage of the written word over the spoken word is that you have time to correct mistakes or explain something more clearly.How many times have you said to yourself, "O, I wish I hadn't said that." Or how many times has someone said to you, "I don't know what you mean."

Writing is a luxury. It gives you time to correct your "conversation" or to be better understood.

Just let it flow.

Good writing is good thinking.

Words, sentences and paragraphs are a reflection of what's on your mind. Well-known writers understand this, so they write as fast as they can, not concerning themselves with spelling, punctuation or even sentence structure, because the mind works faster than they can write or type. They can go back and fix things up later. The famous 19th Century poet and essayist Walt Whitman once said, "I just let her come till the fountain runs dry."

In the process of emptying the mind a writer sometimes uncovers a surprise in the sub-conscious. It's like cleaning the attic. You often find things you forgot were there. This element of surprise or discovery is part of the magic of writing.

So as Whitman suggests, just let it flow.

Focus

Writers start with a blank sheet but not a blank mind. With all those millions of thoughts running around in your head, how do you know what to write.

The solution: Focus.

Just as you need to adjust the lens of your camera to get a clear photograph, so too do you need to get your thoughts in focus.

Three techniques are recommended.

Novelist William Faulkner is said to have written down on a card the three or four words that best summed up the point or theme or focus of the book he was writing. He propped up the card over his typewriter and kept it always in front of him as he wrote. So that's Technique No. 1: Write down in a few words what the focus is. In fact try writing it a dozen ways until you have precisely the focus you want.

Technique No. 2 is to bear in mind that, with few exceptions, stories have a beginning, a middle and an end.

Technique No. 3 is to write an outline. It doesn't necessarily have to have Roman numerals, capital letters and all that goes with a formal outline. But it is worth jotting down the order of points you want to make in the beginning, middle and end. Then start going through your notes to figure out where they fit within the outline you've designed.

What moves you?

Tom Wolfe, author of the best seller The Bonfire of the Vanities, once told the story of a Buddhist monk who sat at lunch with executives of a major newspaper in their private dining room. After they had each described their role, the monk asked, "But why do you do it?"

Motivation makes a difference in writing. What moves you?

It can be the subject itself. You may have a strong position on a particular issue and feel compelled to explain why and maybe convince others of your ideas, positions or opinions.

It can be a desire to pass on what you have learned, to educate others by conveying the results of your research.

It can be a hope to bring a smile to the reader, to entertain, to provide a diversion.

It can be a fulfillment of a wish to serve others, providing information that the reader has the right or need to know.

In reaching out to our audience through writing we often succeed best when we reach inside ourselves. So ask yourself, "Why do you do it?"

Tutorials #5

Words draw a picture in the mind of the reader. Some words add color and life; others draw a blank.

Analyze the following sentence: "Paris is interesting, but it is very hot in July." What does "interesting" mean? What is the difference between "hot" and "very hot."?

"Interesting" and "very" are weak words that should be avoided.

Another frequently useless and misused word is "different"? If you write, "We visited Mexico City on two different occasions, the sentence would benefit by dropping the word "different".

However, if you wrote, "Buenos Aires and Calcutta are different," the word "different" would provide a useful function, providing you then explained what the differences are.

Be sure that every word in every sentence has a function.

Tutorial #6

The more you write the more you learn to write.

You learn that clarity often results from revision of what you first wrote. You learn that rhythm or flow is as important to writing as it is to music. You learn that writing is like a puff of smoke unless it is based on facts (even opinion writing is more compelling if it is based on factual information rather than on random thoughts spouted by the writer). You learn that writing is like cooking, because too much or too little of certain ingredients can ruin it.You learn the importance of word choice. When you are re-reading what you have written, the change of a word here and there can add clarity, it can enhance rhythm, it can lend authority, it can add spice to the ingredients.

Mark Twain, author of Tom Sawyer, once wrote, "The difference between the almost right word and the right word is the difference between a lightning bug and lightning."

Tutorial #7

How can you be confident that what you write is smooth yet tightly written, clear yet vivid? Three easy techniques seem to work well.

One is to read what you have written aloud. If it sounds even the slightest bit awkward, you probably need to do some revising.

The second is to have it read critically by a friend or family member or interested person (teacher, editor, etc.).

The third requires some time. Put aside what you have written for at least an hour but preferably overnight. Then re-read it. You?ll be surprised what new perspectives you will bring to what you have written.

Tutorials #8

Think of adjectives as being describers. They describe a noun ("The floppy rim of her hat.") or a pronoun ("He is red-headed".).

Author Thomas Wolfe was a master of description, who could write page after page about what he saw looking out the window of a train. Here's a sentence about a truck from his book, "You Can?t Go Home Again":

"The heavy motor warmed up with a full-throated roar, then there was a grinding clash of gears, and George felt the old house tremble under him as the truck swung out into the street and thundered off."

His use of adjectives helps you see, hear and feel the truck.

Tutorial #9

Think of adverbs as being assistants to adjectives and verbs. Often but not always they end in "ly".

Adverbs add meaning to adjectives and verbs. Avoid adverbs that fail to add meaning..

Good use: "When the bell rang, she left her classroom immediately."

Weak use: "When the bell rang, she immediately remembered she needed to meet her friend."

Only use adverbs that play a useful role. Words such as "generally", "usually" or "occasionally" serve to qualify (for example: "It's usually hot in Rome in July.").

Words such as "frequently" or "forever" answer the question "When".

Tutorial #10

You've done the research. You've organized your notes, sketched out an outline and written a sentence or phrase that reflects the focus. Now what? How do you begin?

If you?re not too sure, write a topic sentence and keep going from there. You can always go back and change the opening. Another approach some writers use when a good beginning fails to pop into their minds is to begin with the second paragraph and wait till they?ve finished before writing the first paragraph. Some write a quick draft, just to get thoughts on paper. Others put their notes aside, rather than becoming bogged down by looking back and forth. They then fill in the gaps with specifics such as dates, first names and middle initials, exact quotes and the like.

Probably the best way to start is to dash off twenty or thirty potential first sentences. Then go back and pick out the best. Lots of writers do this, because they find that they arrive at certain words and phrases that click after the first dozen attempts. In some cases they?ll decide to use the best sentence in the middle of the story or as an ending.

Tutorials #11

You best writing may occur away from the keyboard. When you least expect it, the exact point of the story or a special turn of a phrase might leap into your mind.

A newspaper reporter mentally writes her story while returning to the office after covering an event. A magazine writer comes to grips with writing themes while cooking dinner. A feature writer goes for a walk, head down, not noticing passersby, ideas churning with each step. A deadline writer, with the clock ticking away, leans back in his chair, feet on the edge of the desk for balance, and closes his eyes. A couple of minutes later, he sits upright and writes a flawless story from beginning to end as fast as he can type.

These are not fictional examples. They describe real people approaching the writing process differently.There?s no right way; there's only your way.

Tutorials #12

Newspapers once had a theory that the most important information should go at the top of the story and the least important should go at the end. The theory was known as the "inverted pyramid". If a story needed to be shortened, it was cut from the bottom up.

Today newspapers, magazines and websites generally agree with the theory that a story should have a beginning, middle and an end. Indeed, many believe the ending is the most important of the three, because it is what is most remembered by the reader.

Frequently writers decide how their stories will end before they determine the beginning.

The beginning and the ending should echo one another, holding together the middle, as though they were two pieces of bread in a sandwich.

Speaking of food, do you often leave the last good bite of a meal till the end? Readers of stories also like to savor that last bite of information.